Emma+Civil+War+Medicine

=Civil War Medicine = toc During the Civil War, hospitals and the practice of medicine in general was very undeveloped, and most people paid little attention to the fact that America was tremendously lacking in terms of the medical world. Health care was falling short, and the Civil War helped in making people realize this about the community.

Amputations and Medical Processes
 Although amputations may have seemed very common during the Civil War, they were really only the most radical treatment of only the most extreme gunshot wounds. Amputations were the most common after large battles with many wounded men, where doctors would be forced to go through men as quickly as possible, usually through these large surgeries such as amputation. During earlier battles, less knowledgeable doctors amputated only to gain experience in the field. Doctors were forced to decide on certain criteria for determining if amputation was needed. The bullets normally used during the Civil War were known as "minié balls", which would drastically change shape when in contact with the soldier's body, and in turn would create larger entrance and exit wounds with mangled body tissue and shattered bones. It was when a soldier suffered from either these conditions or major damage to important nerves and/or blood vessels that they became likely contestants for an amputation. Because of the high demand for fast and efficient treatment, doctors needed to make quick treatment choices. They tended to use visual analysis and finger probing to examine wounds that may have needed amputation, and to see if there was a high risk of bleeding or infection if limb was not amputated. There were three types of amputations: "primary" (performed within the first 48 hours), "intermediate" (performed between the first three days and the first month), and "secondary" (performed after the first month). Regarding amputations, the sooner the better: if doctors felt that an amputation would most likely be needed, then the doctors had to make their decisions, and //fast. // In addition, the location of the wound was crucial; the farther it was from trunk (torso), the better, meaning that arm amputees had a lower mortality rate than leg amputees; however, amputations at any joint had increased risk, and amputations at the hip had the highest death rate. No amputation was ever performed by only one person; the surgeon always had many helpers nearby. One assistant would give the soldier anesthesia (chloroform, if it could be obtained, but ether was also used) while another assistant kept the main artery closed. Meanwhile, the last assistant held the limb being amputated on while the doctor cut away the tissue and bone. Then, once the bone and tissue was successfully removed, the first assistant tied the arteries closed and the surgeon sewed the stump closed. Some of the fastest surgeons and their assistants could perform an entire successful amputation in around two minutes. There were two types of amputation: circular and flap. Circular amputation consisted of the tissue and skin being rolled up like a shirt sleeve while the bone and muscle were cut. Once cut, the sleeve was rolled down and sewn to make the stump. The flap amputation was performed by cutting the skin and tissue, leaving two long flaps which were folded and sewn to form the stump over the end of the bone. Circular amputation was preferred by Confederates, who thought that it was more efficient because it left less tissue to get infected, did not cut as many blood vessels, put the soldier through less pain from scar tissue, healed faster, and made patients easier to transport. On the other hand, flap amputation was preferred by the Union mainly because it was faster and left more tissue to cover the stump. After amputation, most doctors covered the stump with dressing, but some doctors preferred leaving the wound open so that it could drain itself. Splints were used occasionally to support the stump, and whiskey and/or opiates were used to deal with the terrible pain. It was approximated that there were around 30,000 amputations performed by the Union and 25,000 done by the Confederacy, with a 27% amputation mortality rate for each. In general, it was clear that while doctors and nurses of the time were making progress in terms of surgeries and medical procedures, processes of going about medical treatments were still rudimentary and had a long way to go. 

 Ambulances and Medical Transportation
 Near the beginning of the Civil War, the Union medical department had close to no ambulances. As the fighting continued, a useful system for transporting soldiers in an organized fashion with assigned personnel was developed in order to better take patients from one location to the next. Before this new and improved system was developed, wounded soldiers were generally transported by either wagon or farm cart, because ambulances were not used until 1859. In 1859, near the birth of these new ambulances, a group of army men chose a few different designs to use during the war, which were to be tested in the west. These designs were, for the most part, based on the ideas of ambulances used by armies in Europe during the Crimean War. In the early part of the Civil War, ambulances were scarce and very limited. A Union general, Irvin McDowell, only had 50 ambulances that were to be used for his troop of 35,000 at the first Bull Run in July of 1861. In addition to this, a large portion of these 50 ambulances had two wheels and were pulled by horses or mules, which made for slow travel. These two-wheeled carts could only hold a maximum of three patients, and further injured the soldiers by taking them over bumpy roads and constantly overturning or breaking down. However, two years into the war, two-wheeled ambulances were scarce and had been almost totally replaced by four-wheeled vehicles. There were always some variations regarding the different types of ambulances, but the basic types were a lighter type, which used two horses, and a heavier type, which used four horses. The ambulances with four horses were of course larger, meaning that they could hold more patients at a time. The largest ambulances could carry approximately four to six men on stretchers, while two could be hung from the roof and others could sit up by themselves and did not need the assistance of stretchers. Although ambulances constantly developed throughout the war, because of the badly paved roads, transportation for patients could never be comfortable.

How Patients Were Treated/Diagnosed
The way many hospitals and medical practices went about practice was hardly modern and more “medieval” than anything else. Health care at the time was primitive, and therefore the diagnoses and treatments of the various patients was primitive as well, and also rushed because the fact that a war was going on did not help with the situation. First off, the idea of pharmacies was extremely basic and undeveloped. Instead of prescribing medication in order to prevent or to treat a disease, like what is done today, the medicine that was given to patients gave them a large dose of the disease, almost like a dangerous vaccine. Because of this, patients ended up having to suffer through the same awful symptoms as the disease that pharmacists were trying to treat. In addition to that, modern antibiotics were unavailable, and sterilization by heat was unknown. The idea of applying antiseptics to surgery patients (putting something on surgery patients in order to prevent infections) did not catch on until 10 to 15 years after its invention by Joseph Lister of Europe in 1867, after the Civil War. However, most disturbing was how it was thought that the body “sought to cure itself by excreting toxins”, meaning that any release of bodily fluids (vomit, diarrhea, blood, etc.) from infections was encouraged by doctors and nurses , who thought that this would help cure a person from whatever ailment they suffered. Doctors and nurses  often observed bodily fluids such as urine, feces, blood, and pus to attempt to make a diagnosis to the problem. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">

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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Civil War Hospitals and Hospital Gangrene
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> Before the Civil War, when there needed to be many areas to care for the sick and dying, there were not many hospitals, and in general, they were only located in large, populous cities. Because of the large number of patients that needed caring for, nearly any useable space was turned into a hospital for the wounded during the war. When traveling in the field with soldiers, doctors used any buildings they could find (barns, houses) as makeshift hospitals to perform surgeries and take care of patients. There were also hospitals in large cities that were far from the fighting, such as Philadelphia and New York, or were sometimes placed in cities nearby so that the patients could be easily transported. In addition to the hospitals in barns and houses, hospitals were established in nearly any building possible - warehouses, factories, hotels, stores, resorts, and schools. Schools were very commonly used as hospitals because a large portion of them were closed already due to the fact that many students had gone to war. Many buildings used as hospitals were not changed in any way, but if the building could be changed for the better, it <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: normal;">would be. These changes included getting rid of useless or inappropriate furniture, putting boards up to make beds, and taking down walls in order to make the room larger. To make some hospitals, workers occasionally used tents, made sheds, or created new hospital wards. Of course, even though the main purpose of hospitals was healthcare, they still needed to be reasonably large in order to accommodate kitchens, bathrooms, laundry areas, and morgues, among other rooms. Overall, doctors had to make the most of what they had, creating hospitals out of anything they could find in order to care for their patients, and this in turn lead to many hospital diseases and infections, such as hospital gangrene. Hospital gangrene, which was a dangerous and "severe streptococcal wound infection", was a disease which usually killed any soldiers that contracted it. Hospital gangrene was a very serious disease, but patients only contracted it in large, major hospitals located in big cities where many patients with various infections and diseases were treated. It was extremely quick to attack wounds; if a soldier had hospital gangrene, a healthy wound would deteriorate fast and the soldier could die in just a few days. If a wound was infected with hospital gangrene, the disease would start by turning the edges of the wound gray, and then quickly destroying the surrounding body tissue, which caused blood clots in the arteries near the tissue and eventually lead to large, gaping holes where the wounds originally were. The patient then had to be quarantined from the rest of the patients in the hospital so that the disease would not spread any further, and was then anesthetized while the wounds were cleaned with various chemicals that were very painful if the patient was conscious when applied. Despite everything that doctors tried, approximately 46 percent of gangrene sufferers died from the disease, and most survivors had visible deformities as a result of the gangrene infection, which further shows the lack of good medical care in the Civil War era.

Measles
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14px;"> There were many contagious and hard-to-treat diseases during the Civil War era that affected and often killed many soldiers from both sides. The measles, which was a highly contagious disease, had symptoms that included a fever, a cough, and rashes. The disease was most common among newly recruited soldiers who came from rural areas and therefore had not been exposed to the disease before, unlike recruits from the larger cities, who had come in contact with measles, among other diseases, already. When a measles epidemic hit, between one-third and the large majority of the regiment could contract the disease. These epidemics generally lasted between one and two months, which eventually left all infected soldiers useless to the war. Because new soldiers tended to contract the disease, more experienced soldiers tended to leave them in camp to be cared for until the disease passed. However, there were far worse diseases, such as sequelae (a group of dangerous diseases that were much worse than the measles), that affected soldiers because the measles temporarily weakened the immune system.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> Another example of a similar disease was malaria, which was caused by a bite from an infected anopheles mosquito and was much more common in the South and some of the Midwest rather than the North. Once the mosquito carrying malaria infected a soldier, the soldier would, after seven to fourteen days, begin to show symptoms of the disease. The first major symptom was a terrible chill, accompanied by bad shivering. Soon after the shivering came a high fever that could raise a soldier's body temperature to almost 106 degrees. Soldiers would have "attacks", which lasted approximately ten to fifteen hours and consisted of bursts of chills and high fevers. Even if a soldier contracted the disease, it never actually "passed"; basically, the soldier would never become immune to it. Whenever the person became tired or weaker in any way, they would be greeted once again with the familiar malaria attacks. It was hard to prevent malaria during the Civil War because nobody understood that the disease was spread through mosquito bites. Many doctors believed that it was spread through "bad air", or malodorous vapors that usually came from swamps and bogs. For this reason they moved many army camps away from wet, dank swamps and found that it decreased malaria infections by a large margin, but for the wrong reason; what they were really doing was moving the soldiers away from mosquitos' breeding grounds.

Tetanus
A somewhat more dangerous disease and definitely one with a higher mortality rate was tetanus. Tetanus is a disease also known as lockjaw because the initial symptom is a frozen and nearly immovable jaw, was fairly uncommon during the Civil War but killed nearly everyone who contracted it. Once a soldier had tetanus, they would not only suffer from the lockjaw, which made it hard to breathe and swallow, but also had painful muscle spasms. A patient could die from the disease in a couple of hours up to a few days. Doctors had not had much experience before, so many thought that the disease was caused by poisoned bullets, badly cleaned wounds, or problems caused by doctors treating the patient before. It was hard for doctors to do anything to help the patients besides treat their symptoms, which usually did not end up working too well either. Because tetanus is an infection of a wound, some doctors, who realized this, decided to amputate the entire area, which saved ten out of the twenty-nine patients that it was performed on. Historians believe that, because tetanus is also often caused by manure (specifically from horses), there were few cases of tetanus because most fields that battles were fought on were not covered in manure.

Tuberculosis (TB)
Another extremely dangerous and contagious disease was tuberculosis (TB), which affected soldiers in both the North and South. The disease mainly affected the lungs, and was usually spread by coughing, sneezing, spitting, drinking milk from infected cows, or using dirty cooking utensils. A big problem was that doctors did not realize that TB was infectious, and therefore kept patients with TB in the same vicinity as everyone else. In the early stages of TB, the infected soldier could show little or no signs that he was carrying TB. As the disease progressed it became more obvious because the infected members of the army suffered from symptoms such as a bad cough, chest pain, coughing up blood, fevers, sweats, weight loss, and weakness. Because it was hard to tell if a person had TB in the early stages of the disease, many prospective soldiers were accepted into the army even though they were already sick. If, when entering into the army, a doctor found a person to have TB, they would reject the man immediately. The disease was so bad that it was second only to gunshot wounds in terms of discharges from the army: 20,403 white Union soldiers were released because they had contracted TB.

Lyme Disease
Lyme Disease is the most common tick-born disease in North America, and one of the fastest growing in the United States. Humans catch this disease by being bitten by mosquitoes and ticks that carry the illness. There are a wide variety of symptoms ranging from what looks like an infected mosquito bite to failure of the immune system. Lyme disease consists of three stages. Stage 1: Early Localized Infection; stage 2: Early Disseminate Infection; and stage 3: Late Persistent Infection. During the first stage of infection, a red bulls eye shape forms around the bite, but no pain develops yet. Some very early symptoms can include muscle soreness and headaches, similarly to the flu. In the second stage of infection, symptoms such as shooting pains, severe headaches, neck stiffness, sensitivity to light, and facial palsy begin to show in the patient, and the infection begins to enter into the bloodstream. During the final stage of infection, more serious results can occur such as memory loss, arthritis, and the patient can begin to feel detached from the common world and experience delusions or anxiety attacks. Lyme disease can be treated with antibiotics which were rare during the time of the Civil War. Therefore, when someone was diagnosed with lyme disease, it was almost like a death sentence or expulsion from fighting in the war.

Confederacy:
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: normal;">There was not a lot of medicine or medical supplies, mainly because of the Union blockade, in which Union forces took a large portion of Confederate medical supplies away from them. In turn, Confederate workers took supplies from the Union at any possible moment. The m <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">ajor and most successful way to retrieve medical supplies was to run along the border of the Union blockade and take whatever the Confederacy could get their hands on. Because the Confederacy was in dire need of medical supplies, Surgeon General Moore and physician-naturalist F.P. Porcher published various articles in the <span style="font-family: Times,Times,serif; font-size: 12px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14px;">Confederate States Medical and Surgical Journal // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">that listed different plants which could be used as substitutes for unavailable medical supplies and drugs. They needed opium and quinine the most, but after many failed attempt at producing these naturally, such as planting poppies that produced opium, it became clear that the easiest and most effective way to get the drugs was by taking them from the Union blockade.

Union:
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 14px; font-weight: normal;">A major leader in terms of Union medicine was William A. Hammond, who became the chief of the Medical Bureau of the United States Army on the 14th of April in 1862. Hammond worked hard at improving the medical system and working on the medical system's reputation in the eyes of the general public. He worked to make all critics of the Medical Bureau happy, which he did by appointing people to find new medical officers to replace "incompetent" ones and responding directly to any criticism that he felt was unfair, along with other ideas. During the time that Hammond was leading the Union medical department, the department tried harder to remove any wounded soldiers from the battlefield as fast as they could. It was proven in studies that only a small portion of soldiers that were wounded in battle returned to full strength for fighting in the war, which the medical department was working to fix. Because so many people who were wounded in battle did not return to the fighting, medical officers had to work especially hard at preventing diseases among soldiers. The two major diseases that threatened Union forces were malaria and diarrhea. Hammond eventually used his scientific knowledge about how quinine both prevented and treated malaria and its symptoms in his decision to give quinine to all soldiers every day in regions where malaria was present. Diarrhea could break out in an entire troop of soldiers, which would, in turn, make the soldiers tired and have less of an ability to fight in the war. It was determined that a main cause of diarrhea was the cleanliness of the camp, and Hammond worked hard to make all his camps cleaner in order to lower the number of soldiers with the disease. Overall, Hammond worked hard at improving the idea of the Medical Bureau, and also worked on improving the health of Union soldiers.

=<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">TABLES =

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Comparison of the Troop Strength Between William Sherman's Union Army and Ulysses S. Grant's Union Army

 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Month ** ||= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Sherman Troop Strength ** ||= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Grant Troop Strength ** ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">1864: ** ||=  ||=   ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">May ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">142,206 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">115,385 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">June ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">141,749 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">98,384 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">July ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">137,176 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">74,589 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">August ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">132,296 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">55,105 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">September ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">129,405 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">60,897 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">October ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">118,800 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">72,581 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">November ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">78,927 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">74,561 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">December ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">77,585 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">97,235 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">1865: ** ||=  ||=   ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">January ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">75,851 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">104,436 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">February ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">70,707 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">105,635 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">March ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">69,818 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">109,707 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">April ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">75,184 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">110,233 ||

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Comparison of the Wounded and Dead by Wounds Between William Sherman's Union Army and Ulysses S. Grant's Union Army

 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Month ** ||= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Sherman Wounded ** ||= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Sherman Died of Wounds ** ||= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Grant Wounded ** ||= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Grant Died of Wounds ** ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">1864: ** ||=  ||=   ||=   ||=   ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">May ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">8,254 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">188 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">22,596 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">322 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">June ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">5,765 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">238 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">13,173 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">549 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">July ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">5,331 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">355 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">2,043 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">124 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">August ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">2,690 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">447 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">2,322 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">198 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">September ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">1,415 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">256 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">958 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">43 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">October ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">520 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">84 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">1,477 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">101 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">November ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">234 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">20 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">299 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">56 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">December ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">356 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">37 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">349 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">51 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">1865: ** ||=  ||=   ||=   ||=   ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">January ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">53 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">12 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">132 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">26 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">February ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">227 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">29 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">1,158 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">78 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">March ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">1,648 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">155 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">3,082 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">153 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">April ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">47 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">28 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">4,357 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">293 ||

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Comparison of the Sick and the Dead by Illness Between William Sherman's Union Army and Ulysses S. Grant's Union Army

 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Month ** ||= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Sherman Sick ** ||= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Sherman Died of Illness ** ||= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Grant Sick ** ||= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Grant Died of Illness ** ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">1864: ** ||=  ||=   ||=   ||=   ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">May ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">21,682 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">51 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">12,754 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">35 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">June ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">27,170 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">71 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">14,188 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">119 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">July ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">27,354 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">274 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">19,607 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">270 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">August ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">27,375 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">294 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">16,560 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">220 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">September ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">22,274 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">300 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">14,855 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">152 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">October ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">14,967 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">305 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">14,119 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">167 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">November ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">8,315 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">49 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">14,207 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">152 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">December ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">7,682 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">144 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">15,107 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">171 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">1865: ** ||=  ||=   ||=   ||=   ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">January ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">10,912 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">161 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">14,940 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">261 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">February ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">5,986 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">169 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">12,853 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">157 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">March ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">7,021 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">162 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">13,659 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">160 ||
 * = **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">April ** ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">10,116 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">111 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">12,127 ||= <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">104 ||

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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">VIDEOS
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> media type="youtube" key="3T5v_QbFZDU" height="385" width="480" **"Amputations and Artificial Limbs in the Civil War" video by MoC1896**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Amputation being performed in a hospital tent in Gettsyburg, VA, 1863, //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">and // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> Ward in the Carver General Hospital. The National Archives. 29 April 2010. < <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 0px; line-height: normal;">[|__Hospital/Amputation Source__] <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> >

Behling, Ruth A., and Roder, Richard J. "medicine in the Civil War era." In Waugh, Joan, and Gary B. Nash, eds. //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Encyclopedia of American History: Civil War and Reconstruction, 1856 to 1869 // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">, vol. 5. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2003. //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">American History Online // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">. Facts On File, Inc. 29 April 2010. <http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp? ItemID=WE52&iPin=EAHV191&SingleRecord=True>

Bollet, Alfred Jay M.D. Civil War Medicine: Challenges and Triumphs. Tuscon, AZ: Galen Press, Ltd., 2002.

Case of Successful Primary Amputation at Hip Joint. Countway Library of Medicine (Harvard Medical School). 29 April 2010. **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">< **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 0px; line-height: normal;">[|__Amputee Picture Source__] <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> >

Freemon, Frank R. Gangrene and Glory: Medical Care During the American Civil War. Madison, NJ: Associated University Presses, Inc., 1998.

__Lyme Disease.__ 12 May 2010. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 12 May 2010. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyme_disease>

McCallum, Jack. "military medicine." In Tucker, Spencer C., gen. ed. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 11px; letter-spacing: 0px; line-height: 14px;">//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Encyclopedia of American Military History // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2003. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 11px; letter-spacing: 0px; line-height: 14px;">//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">American History Online // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">. Facts On File, Inc. 30 April 2010. <http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp? ItemID=WE52&iPin=EMHII0260&SingleRecord=True>

Schroeder-Lein, Glenna R. The Encyclopedia of Civil War Medicine. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 2008.

Wounded soldiers being tended in the field after the Battle of Chancellorsville near Fredericksburg, VA, 1863. The National Archives. 5 May 2010. <[|Wounded Soldiers Source]>

__Civil War Medicine.__ 2008. Son of the South. 11 May 2010. < http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/civil-war-medicine.htm >

=<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 25px;">NOTES =



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